Pellagra Pre-Goldberger: Rupert Blue, Fleming Sandwith, and The "Vitamine Hypothesis".

The conquest of pellagra is commonly associated with one name: Joseph Goldberger of the US Public Health Service, who in 1914 went south, concluded within 4 months that the cause was inadequate diet, spent the rest of his life researching the disease, and--before his death from cancer in 1929--found that brewer's yeast could prevent and treat it at nominal cost. It does Goldberger no discredit to emphasize that between 1907 and 1914 a patchwork coalition of asylum superintendents, practicing physicians, local health officials, and others established for the first time an English-language competence in pellagra, sifted through competing hypotheses, and narrowed the choices down to two: an insect-borne infection hypothesis, championed by the flamboyant European Louis Westerna Sambon, and the new "vitamine hypothesis," proffered by Casimir Funk in early 1912 and articulated later that year by two members of the American Clinical and Climatological Association, Fleming Mant Sandwith and Rupert Blue. Those who resisted Goldberger's inconvenient truth that the root cause was southern poverty drew their arguments largely from the Thompson-McFadden Pellagra Commission, which traces back to Sambon's unfortunate influence on American researchers. Thousands died as a result.

Preventing blindness and saving lives: the centenary of vitamin A.

Within 20 years of its discovery 100 years ago, vitamin A was recognized as critical to normal eyes, growth, and survival. Clinical interest subsequently contracted to its importance in preventing xerophthalmia, until this ophthalmologist stumbled, quite accidently, on its role in fighting life-threatening infections. Repeated, large-scale randomized clinical trials eventually convinced (and reminded) the pediatric and nutrition communities of its importance for child survival. Vitamin A distribution programs are now credited with saving the sight and lives of nearly half a million children every year.

Albert Szent-Györgyi (1893-1986): the scientist who discovered vitamin C.

Albert Szent-Györgyi, a Hungarian biochemist, discovered vitamin C and rutin (vitamin P). The role of these vitamins in the body and their application to dermatology is vast. For the discovery of vitamin C and the description of oxidation, Albert Szent-Györgyi received a Nobel Prize in medicine in 1937. He discovered the role of adenosine triphosphate, actin-myosin, and many phases of the Krebs cycle, and also initiated studies on the influence of free radicals in the formation of tumors. Between 1918 and 1946, he worked in many European research centers and between 1947 and 1986, in the United States. His achievements were made possible due to his perseverance, which allowed him to overcome many maelstroms that plagued his scientific career.

Casimer Funk, nonconformist nomenclature, and networks surrounding the discovery of vitamins.

In the 2 decades between when the existence of vitamins was first postulated and when they were isolated, scientists and research physicians could produce no conclusive evidence for their existence from the laboratory or clinic. By the time the first vitamin was chemically isolated, vitamins were already widely accepted by scientists, clinicians, the public, and government agencies. In the period between when vitamins were postulated and the Nobel Prize was awarded for their discovery, a debate over nomenclature served as a substitute for a priority dispute. The most popular term "vitamine" was introduced by Casimer Funk in 1912 and was changed to "vitamin" by Cecil Drummond in 1920. Initial conditions surrounding the discovery of vitamins, including World War I, necessitated the creation of unusual networks for the dissemination of scientific information about vitamins. In Great Britain, research institutes, government agencies, and individual researchers were instrumental in creating a set of national and international networks for the dissemination of information from research laboratories to hospitals, physicians, pharmaceutical houses, and the public. These networks of dissemination still exert an influence on how scientific information about vitamins is communicated to the public today.

One hundred years of vitamins-a success story of the natural sciences.

The discovery of vitamins as essential factors in the diet was a scientific breakthrough that changed the world. Diseases such as scurvy, rickets, beriberi, and pellagra were recognized to be curable with an adequate diet. These diseases had been prevalent for thousands of years and had a dramatic impact on societies as well as on economic development. This Review highlights the key achievements in the development of industrial processes for the manufacture of eight of the 13 vitamins.

The discovery and characterization of riboflavin.

The first observation of a pigment in milk with yellow-green fluorescence can be traced to the English chemist Alexander Wynter Blyth in 1872, but it was not until the early 1930s that the substance was characterized as riboflavin. Interest in accessory food factors began in the latter half of the 19th century with the discovery of the first vitamin, thiamin. Thiamin was water soluble and given the name vitamin B(1). However, researchers realized that there were one or more additional water-soluble factors and these were called the vitamin B-2 complex. The search to identify these accessory food factors in milk, whole wheat, yeast, and liver began in the early 1900s. As there is no classical nutritional disease attributable to riboflavin deficiency, it was the growth-stimulating properties of the food extracts given to young rats that provided the tool with which to investigate and eventually extract riboflavin. Riboflavin was the second vitamin to be isolated and the first from the vitamin B-2 complex; the essential nature of the vitamin as a food constituent for man was shown in 1939.

Nobel laureates in the history of the vitamins.

Research on vitamins has advanced considerably over the past 100 years with numerous advancements in the fields of biochemistry, medicine, and nutrition. The purpose of this article is to present the history of vitamins using Nobel Prizes as a framework for each vitamin-related discovery. The Nobel Prize Presentation Speech and Nobel Lecture were reviewed for each Nobel Laureate who received an award for vitamin-related research. The original scientific work of a number of awardees was also utilized as a primary source of the history. Nobel Prizes were awarded primarily for the identification, isolation, and synthesis of vitamins. Additional awards recognized the role of specific vitamins in disease processes. The awarding of over 10 Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine in the last century has recognized the seminal work of numerous scientists and physicians and showcased multiple important advancements in vitamins research.

La creación de un nuevo mercado alimentario en España; las vitaminas en la prensa periódica (1917-1950) / The creation of a new nutritional market in Spain: Vitamins in the press (1917-1950)

Objetivo: Analizar el grado en el que las vitaminas jugaron un papel en la estrategia de creación de un nuevo mercado de alimentos, alimentos-medicamento y especialidades farmacéuticas en España durante la primera mitad del siglo XX. Material y métodos: Se estudiaron todas las menciones a las vitaminas aparecidas en los diarios "ABC", "Heraldo de Madrid", "El Imparcial", "El Liberal" y "El Sol", publicados en Madrid; "La Vanguardia", publicado en Barcelona, y en el semanario "Blanco y Negro" entre 1917 y 1950. La fecha inicial, 1917, se fijó por ser el año en el que aparecieron las primeras noticias sobre vitaminas. La fecha final, 1950, se fijó por considerarse concluida la etapa más dura de la autarquía impuesta por el Franquismo. Las noticias aparecidas se clasificaron en las categorías: consejos dietéticos, curiosidades, noticias científicas, noticias económicas, noticias políticas, trivialidades y uso metafórico. Resultados: Los anuncios que usaron las vitaminas dentro de su estrategia comercial son el apartado más importante en el que se utiliza el concepto vitaminas con porcentajes superiores, en casi todos los casos, al 50%. Las noticias científicas sobre vitaminas le siguen en importancia. Las menciones a las vitaminas en el resto de categorías son inferiores al 5%. Conclusiones: Las vitaminas constituyen un elemento fundamental en la creación de un nuevo mercado de productos en España en la primera mitad del siglo XX, a juzgar por las menciones que aparecen en la prensa periódica analizada (AU)

Aim: To analyze the extent to which vitamins played a role in the strategy to create a new market of food, foodmedicines, and medicines in Spain during the first half of the twentieth century. Materials and methods: A study was made of references to vitamins in the years between 1917 and 1950 in the daily newspapers "ABC", "Heraldo de Madrid", "El Imparcial", "El Liberal" and "El Sol", published in Madrid, "La Vanguardia", published in Barcelona, and the weekly publication "Blanco y Negro". The starting date was selected as the year in which the first news of vitamins appeared. The year 1950 marked the end of the harshest stage of autarky imposed by Franco’s regime. The news that appeared was classified in the following categories: scientific news, nutritional advice, advertising, economy, politics, anecdotes and metaphors. Results: The advertisements that used vitamins as part of their marketing strategy are the most important section with over 50% of total references to the vitamin concept in almost all the newspapers. Scientific news on vitamins ranks second in importance. References to vitamins in the remaining categories were below 5%. Conclusions: Judging by the references which appear in the most important newspapers of the time vitamins represent a fundamental element in the creation of a new food product market in Spain in the first half of the twentieth century (AU)

[Carl Arthur Scheunert's experiments on human nutrition, 1938-1943: boundary transgressions of a scientist under national socialism]. / Carl Arthur Scheunerts Ernährungsversuche am Menschen 1938-1943: Grenzüberschreitungen eines Wissenschaftlers im Nationalsozialismus.

Carl Arthur Scheunert (1879-1957) was a German scientist who supervised several studies with prisoners that were designed to assess the optimal vitamin and nutrient supply, and were conducted by his associate Karl-Heinz Wagner (1911-2007) from 1938 to 1943. This contribution describes the aims, results and conclusions of Scheunert's research 1923 to 1945 in comparison with the national and international vitamin research and its consequences for public health measures. Conditions and results of the human experiments are reconstructed and compared with similar studies performed in other countries. Burden as well as health risks for the study participants are assessed. In addition, it is discussed whether general rules for human experimentation were followed (e.g. informed consent and minimizing of health risks). Although the available documents support the conclusion that no deaths or lasting injuries were caused, the experiments violated ethical standards, in particular because of the conditions in the Waldheim prison including progressive deterioration of nutrition and health.

The discovery of the vitamins.

The discovery of the vitamins was a major scientific achievement in our understanding of health and disease. In 1912, Casimir Funk originally coined the term "vitamine". The major period of discovery began in the early nineteenth century and ended at the mid-twentieth century. The puzzle of each vitamin was solved through the work and contributions of epidemiologists, physicians, physiologists, and chemists. Rather than a mythical story of crowning scientific breakthroughs, the reality was a slow, stepwise progress that included setbacks, contradictions, refutations, and some chicanery. Research on the vitamins that are related to major deficiency syndromes began when the germ theory of disease was dominant and dogma held that only four nutritional factors were essential: proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and minerals. Clinicians soon recognized scurvy, beriberi, rickets, pellagra, and xerophthalmia as specific vitamin deficiencies, rather than diseases due to infections or toxins. Experimental physiology with animal models played a fundamental role in nutrition research and greatly shortened the period of human suffering from vitamin deficiencies. Ultimately it was the chemists who isolated the various vitamins, deduced their chemical structure, and developed methods for synthesis of vitamins. Our understanding of the vitamins continues to evolve from the initial period of discovery.